Not a very useful article, I’m afraid…

Manohar, N. et al. (2017) Researcher Positionality in Cross-Cultural and Sensitive Research. In: Liamputtong, P. (ed.) Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer Nature. pp.1-15

Research, according to England (1994, p. 82), “is a process, not just a product.” Research signifies a mutual space, shaped by both researcher and participants (England 1994). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.2)

Kezar (2002, p. 96) states: “Within positionality theory, it is acknowledged that people have multiple overlapping identities. Thus, people make meaning from various aspects of their identity….” Additionally, researchers’ biases define the research process. Thus, by identifying their own biases, researchers can gain insight into their approach towards research settings, members of particular groups, and their relationship with research participants. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.2)

The term positionality describes an individual’s view and the position he/she has chosen to adopt in relation to a research task (Savin-Baden and Major 2013). These are often shaped by political allegiance, religious faith, gender, sexuality, geographical location, race, culture, ethnicity, social class, age, linguistic tradition, and so on (Sikes 2004). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.3)

Positionality requires the researcher to acknowledge and locate their views, values, and beliefs in relation to the research process. Self-reflection is a mandatory ongoing process in any research project as it gives the researcher the ability to identify, construct, and critique their position within the research process. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.3)

Firstly, researchers locate themselves in relation to the subject, i.e., acknowledging personal positions that have the potential to influence the research. Secondly, they situate themselves in relation to the participants, i.e., how the researchers view themselves, and how others view them. Thirdly, they locate themselves in relation to the research context and the research process, i.e., acknowledging that the research will be influenced by the research context. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.3)

Al-Makhamreh and Lewando-Hundt (2008, p. 11) contend that “cultural and social norms construct certain gender expectations that researchers can negotiate and act within.” In a sociocultural context, gender is particularly important due to the existence of sexual boundaries and gender domains. Therefore, in all research methods and processes, gender needs consideration primarily because cultural and social traditions require certain expectations from researchers and participants in regard to gender (Järviluoma et al. 2004).  (Manohar et al., 2017, pp.4-5)

It is believed that sharing the same gender can have multiple advantages for both the interviewer and interviewee, such as reducing the social distance, facilitating communication, and providing a positive and beneficial experience (Finch 1993). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.6)

Besides gender, age of researcher also influences the research process, particularly in establishing relationship and trust. In several cultures across the world, older age implies respect. Therefore, older participants might not extend due respect to younger researchers which can jeopardize the quality of research findings. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.7)

She states that researcher positionality is controlled by participants. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.8)

One way to minimize the impact of researcher biases is to conduct focus groups because they facilitate the undertaking of unstructured interviews, provide more freedom to the study participants, and allow the group to take control of the interview (Liamputtong 2013). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.8)

Cultural insiders have commonality with the research participants as they share the same social background, culture, and language. Banks (1998) notes that being a cultural insider is the best approach for successful fieldwork. It is often argued that researchers sharing same cultural characteristics as their participants are in a better position to discover research ideas, arguments, and opinions. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.8)

Cultural outsiders refer to the outsider researcher who enters a local area to conduct research. They hold different views, values, beliefs, and knowledge from the community where they undertake the research. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.9)

Liamputtong (2010) contends that one of the key reasons to be seen as an “insider” by the research participants in cross-cultural research is the use of same language. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.9)

However, cultural outsiders may also be able to get deeper understanding and explanations of a phenomenon under investigation (Al-Makhamreh and Lewando- Hundt 2008; Liamputtong 2010). This is because they may not know much about the lives of the research participants and therefore may want to get a closer and a detailed look into what is being researched. In fact, Merriam et al. (2001, p. 411) contend that “insiders have been accused of being inherently biased, and too close to the culture to be curious enough to raise provocative questions.” To them, “the insider’s strengths become the outsider’s weaknesses and vice-versa” (p. 411). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.9)

Fletcher (2014) points out that in cross- cultural research, the ethnic minority participants often distrust the white researchers as they are considered as cultural outsiders. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.10)

it is believed that if researcher is of a middle-class background, differences of authority and privilege within a research setting could not only negatively affect the marginalized groups but such researchers may also be unable to adequately comprehend or represent the lives of marginalized groups (Mellor et al. 2014). (Manohar et al., 2017, p.10)

We would encourage readers to ascertain their positionality and think about their own status carefully before commencement of the research process, and continue to reflect on it throughout the data collection process. In particular, they should be aware of their position among those being researched, how they conduct research, and their understanding of the phenomenon and/or context being examined. The insider and outsider status of the researcher may shift during the course of research project, and researchers will need to clarify and maintain their position during the entire course of cross-cultural and sensitive research. (Manohar et al., 2017, p.13)